Presidential Election of 1796
The 1796 election was the premier contest under the First Party System. Adams was the presumptive presidential nominee of the Federalist Party; the other Federalist candidate was Thomas Pinckney, the Governor of South Carolina, considered electable as the vice-president. At that time there was no formal practice of naming a vice-presidential nominee–the result was left to the electoral college in determining the vice-president as the second-place winner of electoral votes.
Adams' and Pinckney's opponents, of the Democratic-Republican Party, were former Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, who was joined by Senator Aaron Burr of New York as the party's second nominee. Many Federalists would have preferred Hamilton to be a candidate. Although Hamilton supported Adams, his more austere background made him somewhat resentful; some suspected Hamilton of supporting Pinckney over Adams, though this was later demonstrated to be false–Hamilton was more determined to defeat Jefferson. Hamilton and his supporters did however believe that Adams lacked the seriousness and popularity that had caused Washington to be successful, and feared that Adams was too vain, opinionated, unpredictable and stubborn to follow their directions. Adams vowed he would resign if elected to the second place spot of vice-president under Jefferson.
Burr was the only active campaigner in the group. In keeping with the current practice, Adams stayed in his home town (as did the others) rather than actively campaign for the Presidency. He specifically wanted to stay out of what he called the "silly and wicked game". His party, however, campaigned for him, while the Democratic-Republicans campaigned for Jefferson. It was expected that Adams would dominate the votes in New England, while Jefferson was expected to win the Southern states. In the end, Adams won the election by a narrow margin of 71 electoral votes to 68 for Jefferson (who became the vice president), including one crucial vote from Jefferson's own Virginia and also one from North Carolina.
The 1796 election was the premier contest under the First Party System. Adams was the presumptive presidential nominee of the Federalist Party; the other Federalist candidate was Thomas Pinckney, the Governor of South Carolina, considered electable as the vice-president. At that time there was no formal practice of naming a vice-presidential nominee–the result was left to the electoral college in determining the vice-president as the second-place winner of electoral votes.
Adams' and Pinckney's opponents, of the Democratic-Republican Party, were former Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, who was joined by Senator Aaron Burr of New York as the party's second nominee. Many Federalists would have preferred Hamilton to be a candidate. Although Hamilton supported Adams, his more austere background made him somewhat resentful; some suspected Hamilton of supporting Pinckney over Adams, though this was later demonstrated to be false–Hamilton was more determined to defeat Jefferson. Hamilton and his supporters did however believe that Adams lacked the seriousness and popularity that had caused Washington to be successful, and feared that Adams was too vain, opinionated, unpredictable and stubborn to follow their directions. Adams vowed he would resign if elected to the second place spot of vice-president under Jefferson.
Burr was the only active campaigner in the group. In keeping with the current practice, Adams stayed in his home town (as did the others) rather than actively campaign for the Presidency. He specifically wanted to stay out of what he called the "silly and wicked game". His party, however, campaigned for him, while the Democratic-Republicans campaigned for Jefferson. It was expected that Adams would dominate the votes in New England, while Jefferson was expected to win the Southern states. In the end, Adams won the election by a narrow margin of 71 electoral votes to 68 for Jefferson (who became the vice president), including one crucial vote from Jefferson's own Virginia and also one from North Carolina.
The XYZ Affair
When Washington left office in 1797, relations between France and the United States were tense. With Britain and France still at war, the French began seizing U.S. ships to prevent them from trading with the British. Within the year, the French had looted more than 300 U.S. ships.
Although some Federalists called for war with France, Adams hoped talks would restore calm .To this end, he sent diplomats Charles Pinckney, Elbridge Gerry, and John Marshall to Paris. Arriving there, they requested a meeting with the French minister of foreign affairs. For weeks, they were ignored.
Then three French agents—later referred to as X, Y, and Z— took the Americans aside to tell them the minister would hold talks. However, the talks would occur only if the Americans agreed to loan France $10 million and to pay the minister a bribe of $250,000. The Americans refused. “No, no, not a sixpence,” Pinckney shot back. Adams received a full report of what became known as the XYZ Affair.
After Congress and an outraged public learned of it, the press turned Pinckney’s words into a popular slogan: “Millions for defense, not one cent for tribute!” In 1798, Congress canceled its treaties with France and allowed U.S. ships to seize French vessels. Congress also set aside money to expand the navy and the army. This is the reason John Adams is known as the father of the navy.
American newspapers fueled public anger over the XYZ Affair by publishing editorial sand cartoons like this one.
Here the five-man group ruling France demands money at dagger point from the three Americans. The American diplomats respond, “Cease bawling, monster! We will not give you sixpence!”
When Washington left office in 1797, relations between France and the United States were tense. With Britain and France still at war, the French began seizing U.S. ships to prevent them from trading with the British. Within the year, the French had looted more than 300 U.S. ships.
Although some Federalists called for war with France, Adams hoped talks would restore calm .To this end, he sent diplomats Charles Pinckney, Elbridge Gerry, and John Marshall to Paris. Arriving there, they requested a meeting with the French minister of foreign affairs. For weeks, they were ignored.
Then three French agents—later referred to as X, Y, and Z— took the Americans aside to tell them the minister would hold talks. However, the talks would occur only if the Americans agreed to loan France $10 million and to pay the minister a bribe of $250,000. The Americans refused. “No, no, not a sixpence,” Pinckney shot back. Adams received a full report of what became known as the XYZ Affair.
After Congress and an outraged public learned of it, the press turned Pinckney’s words into a popular slogan: “Millions for defense, not one cent for tribute!” In 1798, Congress canceled its treaties with France and allowed U.S. ships to seize French vessels. Congress also set aside money to expand the navy and the army. This is the reason John Adams is known as the father of the navy.
American newspapers fueled public anger over the XYZ Affair by publishing editorial sand cartoons like this one.
Here the five-man group ruling France demands money at dagger point from the three Americans. The American diplomats respond, “Cease bawling, monster! We will not give you sixpence!”
Alien & Sedition Acts
The conflict with France made Adams and the Federalists popular with the public. Many Democratic-Republicans, such as Thomas Jefferson however, were sympathetic to France. One Democratic-Republican newspaper called Adams “the blasted tyrant of America.” In turn, Federalists labeled Democratic- Republicans “democrats, mobcrats, and other kinds of rats.”
Angered by criticism in a time of crisis, Adams blamed the Democratic-Republican newspapers and new immigrants. Many of the immigrants were Democratic-Republicans. To silence their critics, the Federalist Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798. These acts targeted aliens (immigrants) who were not yet citizens.
The Alien Act increased the waiting period for becoming a U.S. citizen from 5 to 14 years and gave the president the power to arrest disloyal aliens or order them out of the country during wartime. The Sedition Act act outlawed sedition, saying or writing anything false or harmful about the government. With these acts, the Federalists clamped down on freedom of speech and the press. About 25 Democratic-Republican newspaper editors charged under this act, and 10 were convicted of expressing opinions damaging to the government.
The conflict with France made Adams and the Federalists popular with the public. Many Democratic-Republicans, such as Thomas Jefferson however, were sympathetic to France. One Democratic-Republican newspaper called Adams “the blasted tyrant of America.” In turn, Federalists labeled Democratic- Republicans “democrats, mobcrats, and other kinds of rats.”
Angered by criticism in a time of crisis, Adams blamed the Democratic-Republican newspapers and new immigrants. Many of the immigrants were Democratic-Republicans. To silence their critics, the Federalist Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798. These acts targeted aliens (immigrants) who were not yet citizens.
The Alien Act increased the waiting period for becoming a U.S. citizen from 5 to 14 years and gave the president the power to arrest disloyal aliens or order them out of the country during wartime. The Sedition Act act outlawed sedition, saying or writing anything false or harmful about the government. With these acts, the Federalists clamped down on freedom of speech and the press. About 25 Democratic-Republican newspaper editors charged under this act, and 10 were convicted of expressing opinions damaging to the government.
Kentucky / Virginia Resolutions
The Democratic-Republicans, led by Jefferson and Madison, searched for a way to fight the Alien and Sedition Acts. They found it in a theory called states’ rights. According to this theory, states had rights that the federal government could not violate. Jefferson and Madison wrote resolutions (or statements) passed by the Kentucky and Virginia legislatures in 1798 and 1799. In the Kentucky Resolutions, Jefferson proposed nullification, the idea that a state could nullify the federal law within the state. In the Virginia Resolutions, Madison said a state could interpose, or place, itself between the federal government and its citizens. The two sets of resolutions followed a similar argument: The states had the duty to nullify within their borders those laws that were unconstitutional.
These resolutions declared that the Alien and Sedition Acts violated the Constitution and needed to be nullified. No other states supported Kentucky and Virginia. However, within two years the Democratic-Republicans won control of Congress, and they either repealed the Alien and Sedition Acts or let them expire between 1800 and 1802
The Democratic-Republicans, led by Jefferson and Madison, searched for a way to fight the Alien and Sedition Acts. They found it in a theory called states’ rights. According to this theory, states had rights that the federal government could not violate. Jefferson and Madison wrote resolutions (or statements) passed by the Kentucky and Virginia legislatures in 1798 and 1799. In the Kentucky Resolutions, Jefferson proposed nullification, the idea that a state could nullify the federal law within the state. In the Virginia Resolutions, Madison said a state could interpose, or place, itself between the federal government and its citizens. The two sets of resolutions followed a similar argument: The states had the duty to nullify within their borders those laws that were unconstitutional.
These resolutions declared that the Alien and Sedition Acts violated the Constitution and needed to be nullified. No other states supported Kentucky and Virginia. However, within two years the Democratic-Republicans won control of Congress, and they either repealed the Alien and Sedition Acts or let them expire between 1800 and 1802
Quasi-War
An undeclared war between the United States and France, the Quasi-War was the result of disagreements over treaties and America's status as a neutral in the Wars of the French Revolution. The term “quasi” means apparent but not real. Remember according to the Constitution the United States Congress has to officially declare war. Fought entirely at sea, the Quasi-War was largely a success for the fledgling US Navy as its vessels captured numerous French privateers and warships, while only losing one of its vessels. By late 1800, attitudes in France shifted and hostilities were concluded by the Treaty of Mortefontaine.
Dates: The Quasi-War was officially fought from July 7, 1798, until the signing of the Treaty of Mortefontaine on September 30, 1800. French privateers had been preying on American shipping for several years prior to the beginning of the conflict.
Causes: Principle among the causes of the Quasi-War was the signing of the Jay Treaty between the United States and Great Britain in 1794. While largely a commercial agreement, the French viewed the treaty as a violation of 1778 Treaty of Alliance with the American colonists.
This feeling was enhanced by the perception that the United States was favoring Britain, despite having declared neutrality in the ongoing conflict between the two nations. Shortly after the Jay Treaty took effect, the French began seizing American ships trading with Britain and, in 1796, refused to accept the new US minister in Paris.
An undeclared war between the United States and France, the Quasi-War was the result of disagreements over treaties and America's status as a neutral in the Wars of the French Revolution. The term “quasi” means apparent but not real. Remember according to the Constitution the United States Congress has to officially declare war. Fought entirely at sea, the Quasi-War was largely a success for the fledgling US Navy as its vessels captured numerous French privateers and warships, while only losing one of its vessels. By late 1800, attitudes in France shifted and hostilities were concluded by the Treaty of Mortefontaine.
Dates: The Quasi-War was officially fought from July 7, 1798, until the signing of the Treaty of Mortefontaine on September 30, 1800. French privateers had been preying on American shipping for several years prior to the beginning of the conflict.
Causes: Principle among the causes of the Quasi-War was the signing of the Jay Treaty between the United States and Great Britain in 1794. While largely a commercial agreement, the French viewed the treaty as a violation of 1778 Treaty of Alliance with the American colonists.
This feeling was enhanced by the perception that the United States was favoring Britain, despite having declared neutrality in the ongoing conflict between the two nations. Shortly after the Jay Treaty took effect, the French began seizing American ships trading with Britain and, in 1796, refused to accept the new US minister in Paris.